Kirk Kristofferson is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at the Ivey Business School. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. His research interests are centered on understanding the impact of social influence and persuasion in consumption contexts. Specifically, he studies the motivations and social factors that drive consumers to behave prosocially, and how impression-management desires can impact subsequent consumer choice. His research has been published in the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal for the Association of Consumer Research, and the Cambridge Handbook of Consumer Psychology, and has been featured in numerous global media outlets such as Time Magazine, Harvard Business Review, the Washington Post.
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Hall, M.; Hyodo, J.; Kristofferson, K., (Forthcoming), "How Rejected Recommendations Shape Recommenders' Future Product Intentions", Journal of Consumer Psychology
Abstract: When a consumer (a recommender) recommends a product to another consumer (a recommendee), it is not uncommon to learn whether the recommendee chose the recommended option (i.e., accepted the recommendation) or a different option (i.e., rejected the recommendation). Our research examines how rejected recommendations affect recommenders’ subsequent intentions toward the originally recommended product. We find that upon learning one’s recommendation was rejected, recommenders are less likely to repurchase or choose the product in the future. This negative effect emerges because recommenders question their knowledge about the recommended product (i.e., self-perceived expertise is reduced). Such questioning is more likely to occur when the recommendee is a close other and less likely to occur when the recommended product is perceived to primarily differ from alternatives due to subjective preferences (i.e., horizontal differentiation is salient). Importantly, this rejected recommendation effect is shown to be distinct from a social proof account. The current research contributes to WOM theory by identifying a novel outcome of recommendation interactions—rejected recommendations—and by demonstrating that this outcome can cause consumers to shift away from a product despite having felt positively enough about the product to recommend it to others.
Link(s) to publication:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1401
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Cowan, K.; Ketron, S.; Kostyk, A.; Kristofferson, K., 2023, "Can you smell the (virtual) roses? The influence of olfactory cues in virtual reality on immersion and positive brand responses", Journal of Retailing, September 99(3): 385 - 399.
Abstract: Virtual reality (VR) has grown in popularity and technological ability, offering wider potential for retailers to immerse consumers in branded experiences. On the industry side, experts argue that integration of olfactory cues is the next big development for VR as such cues have the potential to improve immersion – the feeling of being ‘plugged into’ the experience – and possibly elicit positive brand responses. Despite its promise, integration of olfactory cues also has its challenges, such as financial costs and conflicting evidence of their effects in traditional retail contexts. Unfortunately, research has yet to explore the integration of olfactory cues in VR and offer insight to retailers and scholars. To address this deficit, this research builds upon the concept of immersion and integrates flow theory to explore the interplay and additive nature of olfactory stimuli and VR. We employ four studies using a variety of both ambient (i.e., actual scents) and imagined (i.e., prompted through description) olfactory cues in field (i.e., Facebook A/B testing), online, and laboratory settings. Our findings show through both measured mediation and moderation that in retail-centric VR environments, the presence (vs. absence) of olfactory cues heightens immersion. In turn, immersion elicits flow, which improves brand responses. Our research contributes to the sensory marketing and VR literatures and offers recommendations to retailers seeking to build or expand their VR strategies.
Link(s) to publication:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022435923000325
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2023.07.004
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Kristofferson, K.; Dunn, L., 2023, "The Brand That Wasn't There: The Impact of Brand Displacement on Marketing Outcomes", Journal of The Academy of Marketing Science, May 51(3)
Abstract: With the shift away from traditional media advertisements, many companies are faced with the
new challenge of how to get their advertisement or brand in front of their target consumers.
Streaming services, like Hulu, are exploring new avenues of product placement to supplement
their production costs but also to appease marketers. Product placement, or the deliberate placing
of brands within mass media content, is a well-established marketing tactic that benefits both
brands and media.
However, due to financial, legal, or image reasons, brands may choose not to be associated with
the entertainment content. In these situations, the brand logo is removed, or “displaced” from the
production either physically or digitally to adhere to copyright law, a practice the authors define
as product displacement. While product displacement is a common phenomenon, no research has
explored the consequences of displacement on brand outcomes and the psychological process
through which displacement may be effective.
Link(s) to publication:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11747-022-00901-7
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Kristofferson, K.; Daniels, M. E.; Morales, A. C., 2022, "Using virtual reality to increase charitable donations", Marketing Letters, March 33(1): 75 - 87.
Abstract: Marketer interest in using virtual reality (VR) as a persuasion tactic continues to rise. Notably, one sector at the forefront of utilizing this tactic for persuasive means is nonprofit marketing. Many charities have devoted considerable resources to creating VR appeals under the assumption that this medium will increase donations over and above present tactics. However, research has not yet examined the persuasive consequences VR may provide over more traditional channels. This research seeks to understand the opportunities and limitations this emerging tactic can offer marketers. Specifically, we examine the donation effectiveness of three real VR charitable appeals by assessing actual donation behaviors, and find that VR appeals increase donations compared to a two-dimensional (2D) format. This work addresses a timely and relevant issue for practitioners and opens doors to future research investigating VR’s applications to marketing.
Link(s) to publication:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11002-021-09601-8
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11002-021-09601-8
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Duclos, R.; Sepehri, A.; Kristofferson, K.; Vinoo, P.; Elahi, H., 2021, "The Power of Indirect Appeals in Peer-to-Peer Fundraising: Why “S/He” Can Raise More Money For Me Than “I” Can For Myself", Journal Of Consumer Psychology, July 31(3): 612 - 620.
Abstract: The proliferation of peer-to-peer fundraising-platforms (e.g., GoFundMe, Rally, Fundly) poses conceptual and substantive challenges for behavioral scientists and fundraisers. In this article, we explore how fundraisers should craft their appeals to maximize their chance of success. Four field- and laboratory-studies find that direct appeals (i.e., narratives written in the first-person by the intended recipient) raise less money than otherwise-identical indirect-appeals (i.e., narratives written in the third-person, seemingly by a third party on behalf of the intended recipient). The cause? Prospective donors ascribe lesser (greater) credibility to direct (indirect) appeals, which in turn curtails (increases) their giving. Since the narrative voice (direct vs. indirect) in which appeals are crafted is often discretionary (i.e., adjustable), our findings offer prescriptive guidelines for fundraisers.
Link(s) to publication:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1232
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Kristofferson, K.; Lamberton, C.; Dahl, D. W., 2018, "Can Brands Ever Squeeze Wine from Sour Grapes? The Importance of Self-Esteem in Understanding Envy’s Effects", Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, April 3(2): 229 - 239.
Abstract: Brands frequently rely on envy as a means of fostering brand connection and motivating consumer purchase. The current investigation extends recent consumer research in this area, using an interpersonal envy-inducing method to capture envy’s effects on consumers’ brand and product perceptions. We find that while lower self-esteem consumers withdraw from brands when experiencing malicious envy, higher self-esteem consumers preserve or enhance their relationship with an envied brand when experiencing this emotion. As such, while using envy to foster brand relationships and motivate purchase can be successful with higher self-esteem consumers, among lower self-esteem consumers this tactic is likely to prove largely ineffective and may in fact backfire. Finally, we also show that providing external opportunities to self-affirm in ways other than brand or product denigration reduces the negative consequences of envy among low self-esteem consumers.
Link(s) to publication:
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/697082
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/697082
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Kristofferson, K.; McFerran,, B.; Morales, A. C.; Dahl, D. W., 2017, "The Dark Side of Scarcity Promotions: How Exposure to Limited Quantity Promotions Can Induce Aggression", Journal of Consumer Research, February 43(5): 683 - 706.
Abstract: Marketers frequently use scarcity promotions, where a product or event is limited in availability. The present research shows conditions under which the mere exposure to such advertising can activate actual aggression that manifests even outside the domain of the good being promoted. Further, we document the process underlying this effect: exposure to limited-quantity promotion advertising prompts consumers to perceive other shoppers as competitive threats to obtaining a desired product and physiologically prepares consumers to aggress. Seven studies using multiple behavioral measures of aggression demonstrate this deleterious response to scarcity promotions.
Link(s) to publication:
https://academic.oup.com/jcr/article/43/5/683/2528223
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw056
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Kristofferson, K.; White, K.; Peloza, J., 2014, "The Nature of Slacktivism: How the Social Observability of an Initial Act of Token Support Impacts Subsequent Prosocial Action", Journal of Consumer Research, April 40(6): 1149 - 1166.
Abstract: Prior research offers competing predictions regarding whether an initial token display of support for a cause (such as wearing a ribbon, signing a petition, or joining a Facebook group) subsequently leads to increased and otherwise more meaningful contributions to the cause. The present research proposes a conceptual framework elucidating two primary motivations that underlie subsequent helping behavior: a desire to present a positive image to others and a desire to be consistent with one's own values. Importantly, the socially observable nature (public vs. private) of initial token support is identified as a key moderator that influences when and why token support does or does not lead to meaningful support for the cause. Consumers exhibit greater helping on a subsequent, more meaningful task after providing an initial private (vs. public) display of token support for a cause. Finally, the authors demonstrate how value alignment and connection to the cause moderate the observed effects.
Link(s) to publication:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/674137
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